guerre de trente ans massacres

[107] Well into the 19th century, the leading cause of mortality even for soldiers was disease; of an estimated 600,000 military deaths between 1618 and 1648, only 200,000 were killed in combat. [26], In 1609, the Twelve Years' Truce suspended the war between Spain and the Dutch, which was due to expire in 1621. James responded to this attack on his son-in-law by sending naval forces to threaten Spanish possessions in the Americas and the Mediterranean, and announced he would declare war if Spinola had not withdrawn his troops by spring 1621. [17], After 1560, the Protestant cause was deeply divided by the growth of Calvinism, a Reformed faith not recognised by Augsburg; Lutheran states like Saxony viewed Calvinists in the Palatinate and Brandenburg with mistrust, paralysing Imperial institutions. Le sac de Magdebourg, le siège et le pillage de la ville protestante en Allemagne en grande partie par les forces de l'Empire romain pendant la Guerre de Trente Ans. Its main provisions included Spanish confirmation of Dutch independence, and acceptance of "German liberties" by the Austrian Habsburgs. Celle-ci résiste, bien fortifiée, et attend les renforts du roi de Suède, Gustave-Adolphe. Il s'agit d'un des plus importants massacres de la guerre de Trente Ans tant par l'étendue des pertes humaines que par la cruauté de la tuerie. De plundering van Wommelgem, un tableau de Sebastiaan Vrancx, qui illustre les massacres de la guerre de Trente ans. Car cette guerre de religion se mue en une lutte de pouvoir sans merci entre puissances européennes. Je pense à … [46], As Duke of Holstein, Christian IV was also a member of the Lower Saxon circle, while Denmark's economy relied on the Baltic trade and tolls from traffic through the Øresund. Delivering these commitments required his election as Emperor, which was not guaranteed; one alternative was Maximilian of Bavaria, who opposed the increase of Spanish influence in an area he considered his own, and tried to create a coalition with Saxony and the Palatinate to support his candidacy. Spain was now forced to resupply their armies in Flanders by sea, making them vulnerable to the Dutch navy. In an event known as the Third Defenestration of Prague, the two men and their secretary Philip Fabricius were thrown out of the castle windows, although all three survived. Il y a eu un avant et un après la Guerre de Trente Ans. In May, a combined Franco-Swedish army destroyed the last major Imperial army at Zusmarshausen, while a second Swedish force besieged Prague. This was exacerbated by several legal disputes over property, all of which were decided in favour of the Catholic Church. This influential work was later credited with ending the practice in Germany, and eventually throughout Europe. Doing so turned the conflict into a contest between Imperial authority and "German liberties", while Catholics saw an opportunity to regain lands lost since 1555. [66] Payments amounted to 400,000 Reichstaler, or one million livres per year, plus an additional 120,000 Reichstalers for 1630. Until the mid-20th century, it was seen as predominantly a German civil war and considered one of the European wars of religion. Il est connu pour le nombre de victimes de la guerre produite du côté des civils ainsi que la destruction de la zone sur laquelle la guerre a été menée (qui est maintenant l’Allemagne). Estimates of the total number of military and civilian deaths which resulted from it range from 4.5 to 8 million, the vast majority of the deaths resulted from disease or starvation. Cette guerre semée d'atrocités et de massacres en tous genres a été inaugurée en 1618 par une obscure querelle entre les protestants de Bohême et Matthias, empereur d'Allemagne et roi de Bohême, par ailleurs catholique. This seemed confirmed when Tilly's Catholic League army occupied Halberstadt in early 1625. [36], On 19 August, the Bohemian Estates rescinded Ferdinand's 1617 election as king, and on 26th, formally offered the crown to Frederick instead; two days later, Ferdinand was elected Emperor, making war inevitable if Frederick accepted. Prompted by France, the rebels proclaimed the Catalan Republic in January 1641. [41], Spanish chief minister Olivares correctly interpreted this as an invitation to open negotiations, and in return for an Anglo-Spanish alliance offered to restore Frederick to his Rhineland possessions. La dévastation est si grande que l'expression « magdebourisation » Magdeburgisieren reste pendant des décennies synonyme de destruction, de viol et de pillage. [44] However, Spanish and Dutch involvement in the campaign was a significant step in internationalising the war, while Frederick's removal meant other Protestant princes began discussing armed resistance to preserve their own rights and territories. La ville de Magdebourg perd toute importance pendant des décennies. La dernière modification de cette page a été faite le 16 avril 2020 à 14:10. [75], Ferdinand II died in February 1637 and was succeeded by his son Ferdinand III, who faced a rapidly deteriorating military situation. Düsseldorf Museum Kunstpalast 02 / 02 Mais la résolution du conflit témoigne aussi de la vitalité politique du Saint Empire et des États allemands. The Imperial army under Gallas retreated into Bohemia, pursued by Torstenson, whose victory at Jankau in March 1645 allowed him to threaten both Prague and Vienna. [19], Managing these issues was complicated by the fragmented nature of the Empire, a patchwork of nearly 1,800 separate entities in Germany, the Low Countries, Northern Italy, and areas like Alsace, now part of modern France. [96] The Dutch were also given a monopoly over trade conducted through the Scheldt estuary, confirming the commercial ascendancy of Amsterdam; Antwerp, capital of the Spanish Netherlands and previously the most important port in Northern Europe, would not recover until the late 19th century. The Thirty Years' War was primarily fought in Central Europe between 1618 and 1648. [101] It also disappointed many exiles by accepting the restoration of Catholicism as the dominant religion in Bohemia, Upper and Lower Austria, strongholds of Protestantism in 1618. In the October 1619 Treaty of Munich, Ferdinand agreed to transfer the Palatinate's electoral vote to Bavaria and allow him to annex the Upper Palatinate. Four of the electors were Catholic, three Protestant; if this could be changed, it might result in a Protestant Emperor. Torstensson expelled the Danes from Bremen-Verden and occupied Jutland; after a decisive naval defeat at Fehmarn in October 1644, the Danes sued for peace. [80], In September 1645, the Swedes agreed a six-month truce with Saxony; Ferdinand accepted a military solution was no longer possible, and in October ordered his diplomats to begin serious negotiations at Westphalia. [113] Although suggested towns over-stated losses to avoid taxes, individual records show serious declines; from 1620 to 1650, the population of Munich fell from 22,000 to 17,000, that of Augsburg from 48,000 to 21,000. Although retaken in 1625, a second fleet established Dutch Brazil in 1630, which was then relinquished in 1654. [43], At a meeting of the Imperial Diet in February 1623, Ferdinand forced through provisions transferring Frederick's titles, lands and electoral vote to Maximilian. Unlike French gains which were incorporated into France, Swedish territories remained part of the Empire, and they became members of the Lower and Upper Saxon kreis. Attempts to negotiate a peaceful solution failed as the conflict in Germany became part of the wider struggle between France and their Habsburg rivals in Spain and Austria. Bolstered by this success, Ferdinand passed the Edict of Restitution, which undermined territorial rights across large areas of North and Central Germany. The future Pope Alexander VII and the Venetian Republic acted as mediators, with a total of 109 delegations attending at one time or other. While technically legal, politically it was extremely unwise, since doing so would alter nearly every single state boundary in North and Central Germany, deny the existence of Calvinism and restore Catholicism in areas where it had not been a significant presence for nearly a century. At the same time, the Swedes under Johan Banér marched into Brandenburg; victory at Wittstock on 4 October 1636 regained most of the ground lost after Nördlingen. Luc Rugamba . Even after union, the Portuguese dominated the Atlantic trade in Triangular trade, exporting slaves from West Africa and Angola to work sugar plantations in Brazil. Then the predominant global power, the Spanish Empire included the Spanish Netherlands, much of Italy, the Philippines, and most of the Americas, while Austria remained focused on Central Europe. La guerre de Trente Ans est traditionnellement découpée en 4 périodes successives. [130] Although the Franco-Spanish conflict continued until 1659 and Spain remained a global force for another two centuries, Westphalia allowed Louis XIV of France to complete the process of replacing her as the predominant European power. The Palatinate was clearly lost; in March, James instructed Vere to surrender Frankenthal, while Tilly's victory over Christian of Brunswick at Stadtlohn in August completed military operations. In May 1618, Protestant nobles led by Count Thurn met in Prague Castle with Ferdinand's two Catholic representatives, Vilem Slavata and Jaroslav Borzita. The advance quickly fell apart; Mansfeld was defeated at Dessau Bridge in April, and when Maurice refused to support him, Christian of Brunswick fell back on Wolfenbüttel, where he died of disease shortly after. The political disintegration of the Polish commonwealth led to the 1655 to 1660 Second Northern War with Sweden, which also involved Denmark, Russia and Brandenburg, while two Swedish attempts to impose its control on the port of Bremen failed in 1654 and 1666. Under the December 1625 Treaty of The Hague, the Dutch and English now agreed to finance Danish intervention in the Empire. Depuis trente ans, la guerre refuse de desserrer ses griffes sur Gomet Usta, un vétéran azerbaïdjanais habitant à quelques centaines de mètres du front. Lire aussi: Jeu perfide entre réalité et … [78], Richelieu died in 1642, and was replaced as chief minister by Cardinal Mazarin, followed on 14 May 1643 by the death of Louis XIII, leaving his five-year-old son Louis XIV as heir. Structurellement, il ne s’agissait pourtant que d’une partie d’un affrontement plus large qui opposait les deux branches de la dynastie des Habsbourg à leurs nombreux La guerre de Trente Ans est une série de conflits armés qui a déchiré l’Europe du 23 mai 1618 au 15 mai 1648.Les causes en sont multiples mais son déclencheur est la révolte des sujets tchèques protestants de la maison de Habsbourg, la répression qui s'ensuivit, et le désir des Habsbourg d’accroître leur hégémonie et celle de la religion catholique dans le Saint-Empire. [21], Before Augsburg, unity of religion compensated for lack of strong central authority; once removed, it presented opportunities for those who sought to further weaken it. Je suis très heureux d’être parmi vous ce soir, pour vous proposer un sujet qui, somme toute, est plutôt difficile. Le sac de Magdebourg désigne la conquête et le pillage de la ville de Magdebourg, le 20 mai 1631 (selon le calendrier grégorien) par les troupes de la Ligue catholique. The Habsburg Archduke Ferdinand first required the return of all property taken from the Catholic church since 1552, rather than leaving the courts to decide case by case as previously.  Dutch Republic (from 1619) Denmark–Norway (1625–29) While Spain remained the dominant power in Italy, its reliance on long exterior lines of communication was a potential weakness, especially the Spanish Road; this overland route allowed them to move recruits and supplies from Naples and Lombardy to their army in Flanders. [131], Although religion remained an issue throughout the 17th century, it was the last major war in Continental Europe with religion as its primary driver; later such conflicts were either internal, such as the Camisards in South-Western France, or relatively minor like the 1712 Toggenburg War. This resulted in the treaties of Münster and Osnabrück, making peace with France and Sweden respectively. Anger at such tactics and his growing power came to a head in early 1628 when Ferdinand deposed the hereditary Duke of Mecklenburg, and appointed Wallenstein in his place. … Despite the parties agreeing the Peace of Prague in 1635, fighting continued with Sweden and France on one side, the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs on the other. La guerre de Trente Ans est une série de conflits armés qui a déchiré l’Europe de 1618 à 1648.Les causes en sont multiples mais son déclencheur est la révolte des sujets tchèques protestants de la maison de Habsbourg, la répression qui suivit et le désir de ces derniers d’accroître leur hégémonie et celle de la religion catholique dans le Saint-Empire. [91], Throughout the 1630s, attempts to increase taxes in order to pay for the costs of the war in the Netherlands led to protests throughout Spanish territories; in 1640, these erupted into open revolts in Portugal and Catalonia, supported by Richelieu as part of his 'war by diversion'. Attempts by Maximilian of Bavaria and John George of Saxony to broker a negotiated solution ended when Matthias died in March 1619, since it convinced many the Habsburgs were fatally damaged. [119] They originated in the Bishopric of Würzburg, an area with a history of such events going back to 1616 and now re-ignited by Bishop von Ehrenberg, a devout Catholic eager to assert the church's authority in his territories. After Frederick was deposed in 1623, John George of Saxony and the Calvinist George William of Brandenburg feared Ferdinand intended to reclaim former Catholic bishoprics currently held by Lutherans (see Map). Spanish Empire By the time he died in 1631, over 900 people from all levels of society had been executed. Elle a toujours une résonance particulière puisque la résurgence actuelle des guerres religieuses semble faire parfois mentir les règles de la géopolitique classique. These actions were greeted with approval by his domestic critics, who considered his pro-Spanish policy a betrayal of the Protestant cause. A few days later, Ferdinand withdrew the Edict and signed the Peace of Prague, dissolving the Heilbronn and Catholic Leagues, and creating a single Imperial army, although Saxony and Bavaria retained control of their own forces. [79] Mazarin began seeking a negotiated peace; 25 years of constant war had devastated the countryside, forcing armies to spend more time foraging than fighting, and drastically reducing their ability to sustain campaigns. This included ambitious Imperial states like Lutheran Saxony and Catholic Bavaria, as well as France, which faced Habsburg territories on its borders in Flanders, Franche-Comté, and the Pyrenees. Le 3 avril 1631, Tilly, à la tête des troupes de la Ligue catholique, entreprit de s'en emparer. Soldiers devastated one area then moved on, abandoning large tracts of land and changing the eco-system. Pour les catholiques de l'époque, elle était la manifestation de la colère divine. [83] As with Rocroi, Condé was unable to fully exploit this success; his losses shocked the French court, while 25 years of constant war had devastated the countryside, forcing armies to spend more time foraging than fighting, and drastically reducing their ability to sustain campaigns. [103], It has been argued the Peace established the principle known as Westphalian sovereignty, the idea of non-interference in domestic affairs by outside powers, although this has since been challenged. Ferdinand and his advisors were greatly concerned by the brutal nature of the Würzburg and Bamberg trials, fearing they would discredit the Counter-Reformation, and active persecution largely ended by 1630. [84] However, fighting continued as both sides tried to improve their bargaining position; suffering from ill-health, at the end of 1645 Torstenson was replaced by Carl Gustaf Wrangel, who over-ran Bavaria in the autumn of 1646. Possession of these fortresses gave France effective control of Piedmont, protected the Alpine passes into Southern France, and allowed them to threaten Milan at will. Five days later, the Prince de Condé won a decisive French victory at Rocroi, although he was unable to take full advantage. He began negotiations with Wallenstein, who despite his recent victories was concerned by the prospect of Swedish intervention, and thus anxious to make peace. Le sac de Magdebourg désigne la conquête et le pillage de la ville de Magdebourg, le 20 mai 1631 (selon le calendrier grégorien) par les troupes de la Ligue catholique. There was little serious fighting after France took control of Perpignan and Roussillon, establishing the modern Franco-Spanish border in the Pyrenees. Over the next eighteen months, Spanish and Catholic League forces won a series of victories; by November 1622, they controlled most of the Palatinate, apart from Frankenthal, held by a small English garrison under Sir Horace Vere. A Spanish offensive in 1636 reached Corbie in Northern France; although it caused panic in Paris, lack of supplies forced them to retreat, and it was not repeated. Il s'agit d'un des plus importants massacres de la guerre de Trente Ans tant par l'étendue des pertes humaines que par la cruauté de la tuerie. [121], Elsewhere, persecution followed Imperial military success, expanding into Baden and the Palatinate following their reconquest by Tilly, then into the Rhineland. There were wide regional variations; in the Duchy of Württemberg, the number of inhabitants fell by nearly 60%. Heilbronn League (1631–1635)  Duchy of Savoy (1618–19) De 1618 à 1648, la guerre de Trente ans a mis le Saint Empire à feu et à sang. A combined Imperial-Catholic League army funded by Maximilian and led by Count Tilly pacified Upper and Lower Austria before invading Bohemia, where they defeated Christian of Anhalt at the White Mountain in November 1620. [27], Since Emperor Matthias had no surviving children, in July 1617 Philip III of Spain agreed to support Ferdinand's election as king of Bohemia and Hungary. By 1623, Spanish-Imperial forces controlled the Palatinate; backed by the Catholic League, Ferdinand stripped Frederick of his possessions and sent him into exile. In addition, Lutherans could keep lands or property taken from the Catholic Church since the 1552 Peace of Passau. Verdun, Guernica, Auschwitz, Hiroshima sont autant de symboles qui, dans la mémoire collective, caractérisent cette « ère de catastrophes » (Eric Hobsbawm) [35] Gabriel Bethlen, Calvinist Prince of Transylvania, invaded Hungary with Ottoman support, although the Habsburgs persuaded them to avoid direct involvement, helped by the outbreak of hostilities with Poland in 1620, followed by the 1623 to 1639 war with Persia. Bohemia (until 1620) [62] The Smolensk War is considered a separate but related part of the Thirty Years' War. Celle-ci résiste, bien fortifié… [65], However, once again Richelieu provided the requisite support; in the 1631 Treaty of Bärwalde, he provided funds for the Heilbronn League, a Swedish-led coalition of German Protestant states, including Saxony and Brandenburg. The French candidate, Charles I Gonzaga, was confirmed as Duke of Mantua; although Richelieu's representative, Cardinal Mazarin, agreed to evacuate Pinerolo, it was later secretly returned under an agreement with Victor Amadeus I, Duke of Savoy. Disputes within the Empire drew in outside powers, many of whom held Imperial territories, including the Dutch Prince of Orange, hereditary ruler of Nassau-Dillenburg. Many Spanish officials felt it was time to accept Dutch independence, but despite these challenges, their Empire remained a formidable power. Pendant la guerre de Trente Ans (1618-1648), l'Alsace servit de champ de bataille aux armées impériales, suédoises, weimariennes et françaises. A specially designed Malefizhaus, or 'crime house', was erected containing a torture chamber, whose walls were adorned with Bible verses, where the accused were interrogated. With Saxony occupied by Sweden, Ferdinand III accepted the need to include them in peace negotiations. In Lorraine, the Three Bishoprics of Metz, Toul and Verdun, occupied by France since 1552, were formally ceded, as were the cities of the Décapole in Alsace, with the exception of Strasbourg and Mulhouse. Frederick and the remnants of Mansfeld's army took refuge in the Dutch Republic. Dutch leader Frederick Henry recaptured Breda in October, and three months later Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar destroyed an Imperial army at Rheinfelden. It is suggested the high mortality rate compared to the Wars of the Three Kingdoms in Britain was partly due to the reliance of all sides on foreign mercenaries, often unpaid and required to live off the land. [99] Sweden received an indemnity of five million thalers, the Imperial territories of Swedish Pomerania, and Prince-bishoprics of Bremen and Verden; this gave them a seat in the Imperial Diet. [63], Expectations of widespread support proved unrealistic; by the end of 1630, the only new Swedish ally was Magdeburg, which was besieged by Tilly. The war originated in differences between German Protestants and Catholics, which were temporarily settled by the 1555 Peace of Augsburg but gradually undermined by political and religious tensions. They included separation of the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs, expansion of the French frontier into the Empire, and an end to Spanish military supremacy in Northern Europe. [120], At the same time, Prince-Bishop Johann von Dornheim held a similar series of large-scale witch trials in the nearby Bishopric of Bamberg. [106], The war has been described as one of the greatest medical catastrophes in history. La guerre de Trente Ans constitue toujours un objet de fascination. [112], In 1940, agrarian historian Günther Franz published Der Dreissigjährige Krieg und das Deutsche Volk, a detailed analysis of regional data from across Germany; his membership of the Nazi Party meant his objectivity was challenged post-1945, but recent reviews support his general findings. [15], These figures can be misleading, since Franz calculated the absolute decline in pre and post-war populations, or 'total demographic loss'. [105] While the Thirty Years War ranks as one of the worst of these events, precise numbers are disputed; 19th century nationalists often increased them to illustrate the dangers of a divided Germany. These diaries can be viewed (in German) at: This page was last edited on 20 December 2020, at 16:52. Food shortages were worsened by an explosion in the rodent population; Bavaria was over-run by wolves in the winter of 1638, its crops destroyed by packs of wild pigs the following spring. Ferdinand still resisted signing, but after France gained a crushing victory over Spain at Lens in August, and with Swedish troops attacking Prague, he finally did so on 24 October 1648.  Habsburg Monarchy Des 30 000 habitants (ce qui caractérise une ville majeure pour l'époque), seuls 5 000 survivent. In 1625, he intervened in Northern Germany but withdrew in 1629 after a series of defeats. [37], As a result, although Frederick accepted the crown and entered Prague in October 1619, his support gradually eroded over the next few months. This was due to the influx of soldiers from foreign countries, the shifting locations of battle fronts, as well as the displacement of rural populations and migration into already crowded cities. These trials lasted five years and claimed over one thousand lives, including long-time Bürgermeister, or Mayor, Johannes Junius, and Dorothea Flock, second wife of Georg Heinrich Flock, whose first wife had also been executed for witchcraft in May 1628. [42] Since Frederick demanded full restitution of his lands and titles, which was incompatible with the Treaty of Munich, hopes of reaching a negotiated peace quickly evaporated. Massacres, famines, pestes déciment plus de la moitié de la population, et c'est une Alsace misérable qu'en des clauses obscures le traité de Westphalie cède à la France. [110], The modern consensus is the population of the Holy Roman Empire declined from 18 to 20 million in 1600 to 11-13 million in 1650, and did not reach pre-war levels until 1750. Intended as the basis of a wider coalition against Ferdinand, France, Sweden, Savoy and the Republic of Venice were also invited to join, but it was overtaken by events. Their attribution by some to supernatural causes led to a series of Witch-hunts, beginning in Franconia in 1626 and quickly spreading to other parts of Germany, which were often exploited for political purposes. [18] In addition, rulers might share the same religion but have different economic and strategic objectives; for much of the war, the Papacy supported France against the Habsburgs. In 1618, the Bohemian Estates deposed the Catholic Ferdinand II as King of Bohemia; they offered the Crown to the Protestant Frederick V of the Palatinate, who accepted. [47] In 1621, Hamburg accepted Danish 'supervision', while his son Frederick became joint-administrator of Lübeck, Bremen and Verden. Christian retained his German possessions of Schleswig and Holstein, in return for relinquishing Bremen and Verden, and abandoning support for the German Protestants. The chief agents of the Counter-Reformation were similarly split, the Jesuits generally backing Austria, the Capuchins France. In return, Ferdinand made concessions to Spain in Northern Italy and Alsace, and agreed to support their offensive against the Dutch. [129], Bautzen is besieged by Saxon troops, 1620 by Matthäus Merian, Battle of Frankfurt an der Oder,April 1631, Death of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden at the Battle of Lützen,6 November 1632, The capture of Rheinfelden by the troops of the Duke of Feria,1633, Unsuccessful Swedish-Transylvanian siege of Brno, 1645, 1618–1648 multi-state war in Central Europe, Phase II; France joins the war 1635 to 1648. [51], The intervention involved three Protestant armies; the main force under Christian IV was to advance down the Weser, while Mansfeld attacked Wallenstein in Magdeburg and Christian of Brunswick linked up with the Calvinist Maurice of Hesse-Kassel. [98], Taken as a whole, the consequences of these two treaties can be divided into the internal political settlement and external territorial changes. He concluded "about 40% of the rural population fell victim to the war and epidemics; in the cities,...33%". The process, or 'Congress' model, was adopted for negotiations at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1668, Nijmegen in 1678, and Ryswick in 1697; unlike the 19th century 'Congress' system, these were to end wars, rather than prevent them, so references to the 'balance of power' can be misleading. More common were disputes such as the 1606 'battle of the flags' in Donauwörth, when the Lutheran majority blocked a Catholic religious procession. Regardless of religion, most German princes refused to support him and by early 1620 the Bohemian Revolt had been suppressed. [67] He won major victories at Breitenfeld in September 1631, then Rain in April 1632, where Tilly was killed. This provided an opportunity for Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, who invaded the Empire in 1630; backed by French subsidies, the Swedes and their German allies won a series of victories over Imperial forces, although Gustavus was killed in 1632.

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